France and Sweden approached to managing supply and demand.

Sweden-

›Phasing out nuclear

›Phasing out fossil fuels

›100% renewable energy by 2050

›Wind will cover 57% the rest by HEP & Biomass mainly

›Emissions drop per capital

France-

›Currently a net exporter of energy

›Demand increases

›To prevent this continued development of Nuclear energy – 75% current mix

›Europe’s largest electricity importer.

›To reduce emissions it only develops primary energy from nuclear – keeping fossil fuel emissions low

›But has to import the secondary energy of electricity

OPEC

Who is OPEC-

›A powerful player in the global energy supply

›To maintain stable prices OPEC boosts supplies when demand rises and reduces them when demand falls

›¾ of World oil reserves controlled by OPEC

Energy conservations in the work place and homes.

Mark and Spencers-

›M&S – conserve – educate staff to be energy conscious – switch lights off.

›Nearly all stores operate a remote half-hourly energy monitoring system

›Invested in up-to-date refrigeration systems

›Works with Carbon Trust to educate employees & design energy efficient stores

›Runs energy awareness campaigns

›30% less carbon emissions than in 2002.

Man City Football club-

› Wind turbines & Solar panels on roof of stadium powers the floodlights and enough to contribute to local community

›One of greenest sporting stadiums in the World

›Built on a brownfield site

›Stadium powered by wind turbines in front of the stadium

›Reduced club carbon emissions by 3,500 tonnes per year

›Creates more electricity than needed and feeds into the local grid

Home-

›Loft insulation – keep in heat›Solar power for heating hot water›Movement sensors for light coming on & off›Cavity walls filled for insulation›Energy efficient boiler & appliances›Collect roof water and used for garden – sometimes used for toilet systems›Bedzed - London

Transport-

Technology –

›fuel efficient cars

›Hybrid cars

›Electric cars

›

Transport – reduce use of cars

›Cycle to work – free/cheap bike for work

›Congestion charges – less cost for greener cars

›Better public transport – Trams in Nottingham

›Car share

›Road tax – cheaper for greener

Appropriate technology

Appropriate technology- is technology that is sustainable for that area they are low cost They are used by local knowledge.

Solar cookers-
Solar cooker conduct heat and harnesses energy in a environmental way.
Benefits
solar power cooker are used to pasturise water reducing risk of disease
 at bacteria is killed.
They can be used to disinfect medical supplies.
Reduce imports of fossil fuels also deforestation is not a problem.
2 billion people rely on wood and charcoal for cooking fuel
They can be made from recycled material.
Eliminated work fuel wood collecting.
Produces no harmful pollution

Sustainable energy supply.

Potential of biomass as sustainable energy supply
Biomass is a material that was recently living.(wood, plants animal waste)
Materials are burnt to release energy. It can be processes to produce biofuels
biofuels- to ferment sugarcane to produce alcohol.
It is a sustainable energy resource
Biomass is released by burning, which produces carbon dioxide. Biomass does not contribute to global warming as the amount of Co2 released equals the amount of co2 taken in. eg Brazils 18% transport fuel is from biomass.

Disadvantages- Large land is needed to produce sufficient amounts of bio fuels. Fossil fuels are often used to transport biomass.
Wood burning produces methane.

Solar power-Energy from the sun. It is a clean energy resource. Solar water heaters use the sun to heat water.
PV cells convert light energy into electrical energy. Which can be transported of used.

Disadvantages- Co2 released when equipment of produced.
PV cells are expensive.
Large areas of solar panels and sunny climate is needed.
It could generate 2.5% of the world energy by 2025.

Tidal energy- comes from the movement of tides. Tides can be harnessed by used tidal barrages which is dam built on a rivers estuary as the tide flows in water passes the gates of the barrage turning wind turbines that generate electricity. 

As the earth is covered i 71% water it would be ideal. Tidal energy has a high energy density.

Disadvantages- the cost for construction of a tidal power plant is very high. Creating dams is hard engineering method. These plants can only be build in coastal regions which means it is build far from where it is consumed so transportation is costly,

Wave energy- is harnessed using a wave generator.  Water enters the chamber the increased mass forces air in the chamber which turns the turbine.

Disadvantages- Waves are unreliable as there aren't always waves.
Generators are expensive.

HEP-
energy of falling. HEP supply about 20% of the worlds energy.
Once plants are build there release no green house gases.
At HEP large dams are build to trap large volumes of water. Tunnels containing turbines are built into the dams. The pressure of the water above drives water through the tunnels, turning the turbines.
Generators the covert the energy into electricity.

Disadvantages of HEP- Construction of dams means habitats and communities are destroyed.'
If dams fail then large areas of land will flood. Ecosystems ad fish migratory paths are disrupted  The plants are expensive to build making the release CO2.

The Nurek Dam in Tajikstan is the tallest dam in the world and has nine HEP turbines it supplies 98% of the countries electricity.

Wind energy- Harnessed by wind turbines. Wind turbines are built where there are regular winds. The energy turns the blades on the turbine converting wind energy into mechanical energy this is then converted into electrical energy by a generator.
Denmark produces 19.7% of its own wind energy.

Disadvantages- The amount of energy depends on wind strength.
Creates noise pollution. Turbines can kill birds.Large amount of land is needed to supply the demand. Less ascetically pleasing. Many turbines are needed for a sustainable amount of energy eg the largest turbine can only supply energy for 457 people.
You need 7000 wind turbines to create enough energy as a nuclear power plant.

Case study-Aberystwyth

›Cefn Crowyn in the hills above Aberystwyth – the coast – windy location

›Wales one of the windiest places in the World

›Wind farms can be onshore & offshore

›Wind is strongest in winter when energy is needed most

›Most powerful onshore wind farm in UK

›Cost £50 million – June 2005

›

›

Case study- East Siberia Pacific Ocean pipeline.

ESPO- Gas prom pipeline. Supplies nearly all of Asia's gas decreasing reliance on the Middle East.
Russia has a lot of oil and gas and is connected to China and Japan also it has made a deal with China to meet China's gas demand. As the pipes are going through any countries to reach the consumers this may cause geopolitics if the oil leaks also it has been re-routed due to environmental impacts of this pipeline eg it would have passed the habitat of the Amur cat which is a endangered species.


›ESPO oil pipeline to be completed by 2016 – 2600 miles long
›The pipeline offer Russia a new energy pathway into Pacific markets – markets which are increasing in consumption!›Russia, China & Japan are interested in the pipeline for Geopolitical reasons›China & Japan competing for Russia’s oil and ESPO to secure their future energy››To support it’s rapid economic growth›China’s communist part need reliable energy supplies to maintain control›Current Oil comes by tanker through the Strait of Malacca (near Malaysia) and are subject to pirate attacksJapan wants Russias oil ›It has almost no oil reserves of it’s own›It’s the World’s 3rd largest oil consumer›¾ of oil comes from the Middle East so it is very dependent on this unstable part of the World›Access to ESPO will reduce dependency by 15%›Japan wants to engage with Russia & increase economic and political influence that is falling›Japanese government to finance ESPO project $7 billion if pipeline doesn’t end in China but extends to Pacific Coast closer to Japan.›This would restrict Chinese access to Russia’s oil & strengthen Russia & Japan’s relationship›Russia will also be able to export to other pacific countries such as Malaysia›

TNC-Shell Case study.(bad impact

Shell is a global energy production company. It has more that 104,000 employees in more than 110 countries. It helps demand of economic energy demand.

The Niger Delta is a river system and has farmland occupied by 6 million ethnic minorities. It is the most important wetland in the world and also an area rich in oil.
Shell spent 220 million on roads health clinics and education in the Niger delta region n just one year and a further 100 million of environmental projects in return they made a deal with the government to posses the oil reserve.
The Nigerian education suffered greatly from the government dept. as today 6 million children dont attend school and the literacy rate is 67%.

Nigeria delta i in great dept to the world bank, last year shell contributes 25 million to the economy but the government as in 10 million deficit.

The Agoni tribe are inhabitants of the delta and live of the land agriculture. Shells oil extraction lead to the scaring of their land and farm land decreasing their standard of living. The government killed 80 people who protested against shell.

Ken saro wiva was a member of the Agoni people whos land was being targeted for oil extraction since 1950  and the land has suffered from environmental damage.

IN 1995 Ken was Killed due to his apposition of shell.
(Boyycott shell) and he was a critic of the Nigerian government as he was fighting for his land for 30 years. He did non violent protest against shell as a president for a (survival of the Agoni people )

The oil industry earns millions a year and leaves rust pipelines , and contaminated air and water damage to crops due to open gas flares.

Impact of energy production on the environment.

Fuel food gathering is wood that is burned for  fuel.(primary energy) domestic fuel.

Gathering of wood can cause deforestation, habitat loss and soil erosion as tree roots bind the soil together and if trees are removed soil can be washed away by rain or blown away.In Nepal, 87% of their primary energy is sourced from fuel wood and the ever increasing demand has led to the destruction of 71% of their forest coverage. This has resulted in the risk of flooding and landslides in both Nepal and neighbouring Bangladesh being greatly increased as the absence of trees increases surface runoff by reducing the interception store and it means that there is a lack of roots to bind the soil.

In LEDC fuel wood is burnt in completely in air on stoves which leads to the production of CO carbon monoxide, methane and nitrogen oxide. These have health impacts and cause global warming.
As there are double emissions as you burn it to make charcoal.

In Ethiopia 80% of homes used fuel wood . It is transported on women's backs they make less than $12 dollars a month. Also they walk up to 8 miles a day.

Nuclear is non renewable energy, its source is uranium which is an scars radioactive source. It said to last 30-60 depending on demand. It is the cleanest and cheapest and has no emissions in France.

Problem- Its waste is radioactive and you have to keep it in your countries for many years.
(2cm pellet produces same amount of energy as a 1.5 tonne of coal.)

Casestudy- in Pripyat 40,000 inhabitants.
Chernobyl 1986 26th April.
Nuclear explosion due to a radioactive cloud which blew up on Europe.
This caused radiation poisoning .  This caused 100,000 cancer victims. 56 died.
 Radioactive particles settled on trees killing 400 hectors of pine trees.
13% of UK power is nuclear.
75% of Frances energy is nuclear
Fossil Fuel-  A finite resource (natural gas, oil, coal) formed from fossilised plant and animals over millions of years. Found in MEDC mainly in middle east it is converted into secondary energy. They release green house gases, acid rain is erosive kills trees.
Nuclear bombs can be made.
200,000 people in thirty kilometer radius had to be rehoused.
Food supplies were affected contaminated.

›China developing it – 32 by 2020

›Costs are high regarding safety & insurance

›Nuclear waste an unsolved problem – radioactive for 10,000 years

›Nuclear technology also used as weapons

›Extracting Uranium produces co2 emissions

›Chernobyl – possible nuclear disaster is global

Environmental impacts of fossil fuels.
Scaring of the land in extraction
Oil tank spills eg BP.
Land loss
weather change
loss of crops 
Acid rain-›Clean Air Act – 1979 – has significantly reduced the problem in Europe

The gulf war case study- and TNC

Iraq(Saddam) took over Kuwait due to his interest in their oil and energy resources. As Kuwait is allies America.France were allies with Iraq and while this was occurring they were training their troop of planes etc and they didn't realise hat was happening. Sadam went to war with Kuwait but as this happened America stepped in on Kuwaits allies as more that half the worlds oil supplies were at stake. Sadam Hussein was defeated however he burned 500 Kuwait oil wells and spilt 700 wells into the sea. He was claimed a eco-criminal.

Impact
in 1991- 2003 a trade embargo was placed of Iraq this meant they could not trade which stopped economic growth many people died.
(Sadam Hussein was executed)

Key played in geopolitics are America, Middle East, Russia, China.

TNC-BP operate in 80 countries.
controls 1/3 of gas reserve.
process capacity of 2,8 million barrels of oil per day
role of TNC in world energy production and distribution.
World leading international oil and gas company.
has reserves worth 18,000 million barrels equivalent.

What they do-
Used technology to find oil under the earths surface. Before scarring the ear they used maps, sound waves to show the size and consistence of the oil.

After the have identified the site the begin drilling taking environmental factors into account.  Then this is transported to most demanded areas. Crude oil is transported by pipes or shipping. (over 4000 world in shipping).
In 2006 BP caused the biggest oil spill

process capacity of 2,8 million barrels of oil per day

Economic impact

• The government asked for $20 billion in damages from BP and BP's share price fell.
• Local industries, such as fishing was threatened. There was a ban on fishing in the water.
• Tourism declined.

Environmental impact

Environmental worker rescuing an oil-covered pelican

• Plants and animals were completely covered in the oil. Seabirds, sea turtles and dolphins have been found dead.
• Oil that entered wetland areas meant recovery would be slow.
• Fish stocks were harmed, and productivity decreased.

The size of the oil spill was one of the largest America had seen..

TNC- GAZPROM RUSSIA.

based in Moscow. controls 1/3 of worlds gas reserves.

92% of Russias gas production.

Provides 25% of EU gas.

Sole gas supplier to 8 countries.

Energy intro

What are renewable and non renewable resources(flow)
Renewable energy(non critical) is any natural occuring energy, theoretically inexautable source of energy as biomass, wind, tidal, wave HEP.

Non renewable-(stock)(critical) Any energy source that is not replaced that will run  out. A non-renewable resource (also known as a finite resource) is made up of deceased organic material.It consumed at a faster rate then its made it is unsustainable as it is running our meaning the needs of tomorrow are not accounted for.

Fossil fuels- a natural fuel such as coal, oil, and natural gas. Formed by geological past from remains of living organisms.

Primary energy- is sources in their raw form such as oil. They are used to produce secondary energy which are manufactured to produce (Electricity)

Crude oil is a fossil fuel found in liquid underground in ocean. its refined to produce petroleum
Natural Gas- a mixture of hydrocarbons occur with crude oil deposits
Coal- Black graphite, formed from fossilised plants and animal. 


Global patterns in energy- 

UK primary energy mix-  

Uk primary energy mix

As you can see it is not very diverse and sustainable as it relies heavily on non renewable energy resources.Only 2% is renewable. Over 70% of UK energy is supplied by oil and gas as the UK has reserves of both. In 1970 UK consumption of oil increased due to the discovery of the North Sea. The decreases in coal consumption or production in the UK is due to using clean energy and closure of mines as its easier to transports. Uks RE use has increased even though it 6% below EU average.HEP is at 3% as theirs not enough place to build these. Nuclear is dangerous Chernobyl disaster.

There has been an increase in oil and gas due to the discovery of the North sea this is beginning to run out.
Europe is the windiest countries.

Domestic production - is less than what we use.

Uk became a net importer in 2005.

The Global energy production is unevenly distributed.

Some countries have high energy reserve, some have fewer and produce less energy.

Wealthy countries tend to consume more energy and as years have gone on the amount of energy consumes has increased the use of oil, coal and gas have largerly increased while nuclear and HEP and renewable increased slightly this shows unsustainable development. There is also a trend that America, Europe and Asia consume more then they produce whilst the Middle East and Africa produce more then they consume. Also the more wealthier you are the more you spend. 87% of the world enegy comes form finite resources. Uneven distribution of oil  as half of the worlds oil reserves are in the Middle East this causes geopolitics. Oil trade is dominant in the Middle east as it supplies to Russia, America and Africa.

Consumption pattern- ›Fossil fuels make up 85% of World energy consumption

›Expected consumption increase across world

›Fastest increase in consumption in economically growing countries – China, Brazil & India

›Developed World consume 75% of the total supply of fossil fuels

›

Geopolitics that occurs due to energy distribution.

Energy security is important to governments

They all depend on energy.

At times there can be concerns to energy security which can lead to conflict.

sea level change

Eustatic - is world wide changes in sea level due to glacial erosion when water was stored on land reducing sea level.

Isostatic- Isostatic change is due to changes in loading of the crust of the earth: Loading (or unloading) can be due to mountain building, erosion or ice build-up. If material is added, the crust will sink a bit, and if it is taken away the crust will rise

Isostaic recovery complex in UK?  Isostatic recovery is greatest near Scotland that is where most of ice was. The land is rising at 4-20 mm a year and in the south land is sinking. 

Global warming causes the expansion of water as water heat it gains kinetic energy causing it to move faster and futher apart meaning it expands.

Global warming leads to Eustataic change.

Submergent coastline features- Submergent coastlines are stretches along the coast that have been inundated by the sea due to a relative rise in sea levels. This occurs due to either isostacy or eustacy.

Ria-  during ice age sea level was lower.SO valleys cut below present sea level after these melted the valleys drowned giving Rias in hilly areas and estuaries in lowland basis.(Devon )

Fjords- found in mountainous coastal areas as glaciers cut u shapes valleys by abrasion. Glaciers cut steep sided flat bottomed valleys in low land which drowned due to sea level rise.(Howe sounds in North America)

What is an Emergent coastline-Are associated with a drop in the sea level.(raised beaches) occurs due to isostatic of eustatic change. Identify them by features above the high tide mark. Raised beaches were formed when the sea level was higher than today this can be seen in Isle of Portland which is 15meters above sea level.

Rise in sea level- Bangladesh, 1m sea rise could result in 17.5% of country to be under water leading to 13 million being displaced.

Coastal flooding (Katrina) casestudy

Coastal flooding - Hurricane Katrina



What is a tropical cyclone?
A tropical cyclone is composed of a system of thunderstorms that shows a cyclonic rotation around a central core or eye.

What causes the flood in New Orleans- winds , produce a storm surge over the ocean which led to flooding in coastal areas.

Low atmospheric pressure by cyclones reduces pressure of the sea causing it to rise( storm surge)

Strong offshore winds force water to higher levels along the coast causing waves to move inland.
Due to this and high rainfall which may be unable to drain into the sea,

Tsunami-are huge ocean waves caused when water is displace due to plate movement  due to landslides volcanic eruption.When in sea waves have low height but as they approach the shore the waves become slower due t friction causing the wave height to increase.

Human activity may cause this 

management of rivers eg  dams may trap sediment causing less deposition at the rivers mouth to form deltas as this happens due to sediment starvation deltas shrinks proving less protection for high tides.

Building on coastal low lands has restricted sediment supply to protective beaches

Responses

There was much criticism of the authorities for their handling of the disaster. Although many people were evacuated, it was a slow process and the poorest and most vulnerable were left behind.

$50 billion in aid was given by the government.

The UK government sent food aid during the early stages of the recovery process.

• Katrina was a category 4 storm.
• Storm surges reached over 6 metres in height.
• New Orleans was one of the worst affected areas because it lies below sea level and is protected by levees. These protect it from the Mississippi River and Lake Ponchartrain. The levee defences were unable to cope with the strength of Katrina, and water flooded into the city.
• Despite an evacuation order, many of the poorest people remained in the city.
• People sought refuge in the Superdome stadium. Conditions were unhygienic, and there was a shortage of food and water. Looting was commonplace throughout the city. Tension was high and many felt vulnerable and unsafe.
• 1 million people were made homeless and about 1,200 people drowned in the floods.
• Oil facilities were damaged and as a result petrol prices rose in the UK and USA.
• The storm damages Mississippi delta causing erosion of deposited material.

Economic- it cost the US 105 billion dollars.

Holderness coast case study continued

Holderness coast –

Has resulted in cliffs being prone to erosion. Homes near the cliffs have fallen in price and 30 villages have been lost due to erosion since the roman times.

Easington- gas terminals account for 25% of Britain’s electricity.

Dunes and wetlands the spit contains mudflat and a salt marsh this is a sight of sssi as  groins are put in place this may cause there to be sediment starvation on the spit causing erosion.

1-Flambourough head – Northern coast. Layer of chalk cliffs, these caves show erosion such as cave stack stump etc.

2- Bridlington- is a urban development, tourism occurs here. Fishing is dominant here. This is protected by flambourough head. Concrete walls and groins have been put in place.

3- Hornsea- is 2.9 km stretch. Urban area. Tourist area causes footpath erosion.(rock amour and groyenes and concrete sea wall also a gabion has been put in place to protect the caravan site)

4-Mappleton- has intense erosion at 2 m per year. (2 rock groins)

5-Withernsea- Holiday resort is a popular tourist area. Caravan sites and golf courses add to local economy. Groins, sea wall and riprap have been placed here to preserve tourist area.

6 Easington- is southern headland of the HC. It gas terminal supplies 25% of the UK gas supply and receives gas from the North Sea. This is why rock armor has been put in place, to protect the gas terminal.

7 Spurn head- Occurs due to longshore drift of sediment that is deposited there it has a recurved end due to change in wind direction. Spit has been protect from erosion by hard sea defenses. (timber groin ,rubble)

Impacts is loss of homes 30 villages, damage and loss of infrastructure, Loss of farmland, Danger to tourism, damage to coastal protection. The approach t0 do nothing or hold the line (seawall) have been taken into place. 

Coastal hard and soft engineering method.

Hard engineering methods for coasts.

Coasts are dynamic and are changing.

HARD ENGINEERING- Expensive solution which involve altering the beach, environment. It is the controlled disruption of natural processes.	SOFT ENGINEERING- Managing the cost in a way that doesn’t harm the environment.
Groins- Stop longshore drift as they trap sediment. They harm coasts further down the coast. They cause deposition of material causing the deposition of material.	Managed retreat ·         Areas of the coast are allowed to erode and flood naturally. Usually this will be areas considered to be of low value - eg places not being used for housing or farmland. ·         The advantages are that it encourages the development of beaches (a natural defence) and salt marshes (important for the environment) and cost is low.
Sea wall- They act as a deflector-so they deflect the energy and force of the sea and push it back out to sea they are a great form of coastal defense. ( over years wall may begin to erode)	Gabbions(rock cage)- absorb the impact of waves however they need to be replaced
Rock armor- Absorb the energy of waves. Allows the buildup of a beach.(expensive to transport big boulders.) more aesthetically pleasing
Water breaker- concrete blocks places offshore break waves offshore and absorb the force of waves before they reach the cliff.

coastal erosion and management casestudy

The Holderness coast-
Europe fastest eroding coastline.(2m per yr)Around 2 million tonnes of material every year.
The Holderness coast is made of boulder clay. Underlying it is chalk.
 Spurn point is a spit that contains 3% of the cliffs eroded material.

Waves are dominant from the North East.destructive waves erode and attack the foot of the cliff removing clay. Longshore drift carries this material southward.

2 main type of rock found in HC is boulder clay and chalk. The more resistant chalk has overcome erosion and created Flambourgh head which is a (stack stump etc).

Physical factors that effect erosion?
Winter storms produce stronger waves and higher sea levels. they intensify sub-aerial weathering eg mass movement (slumping) due to clay saturation.

Boulder clay is eroding at fast rate due the refraction concentration the wave attack on the headland.(Mappleton)
 Foot path erosion
Urbanisation and driving

Tourism in bridling-ton and Hornsea as their are caravan parks etc.
Interfering with natural processes such as longshore drift due to groynes in Mappleton and Hornsea there has been a problem with sediment being prevented from building beaches somewhere else. rapid erosion may occur eg in Great Cowden due to sediment starvation.

Global warming causes a rise in sea level.

Due to easily eroded material in Mappleton and because to destructive waves attacking beaches groynes are put in-place to trap sediment. Due to the fact that 1 million tonnes of sediment are transport due to longshore drift. This  mean less sediemnt is present to protect the cliffs during storm months and protect the beach. These groynes may lead to intense erosion down the coast.

Features of flambourough head-

Notch show the intensity of the wave. Wave refraction also concentrated the wave on headlands increasing change of erosion into cliffs stacks and stump.

The holdreness Cliffs

retreating 10x faster than chalk cliffs at 2 meters per year.

On land the rainwater enters the clay in the cliff as it is permeable increasing the weight of the cliff causing slumping which is a mass movement. Urbanisation and removal of vegetation increase this effect.

Spurn Head- sediement is deposited here due to longshore drift, Waves and wind have created a recurved spit. Spit is growing at 10 cm per year, winter storms threaten to detach its neck from the main land.

Coastal erosion features continued..

Wave cut platform-

Waves attack the base of a cliff processes such a hydraulic action and abrasion. Overtime this forms a wave cut notch as the cliff is undercut. The cliff collapses and retreats back leaving a wave cut platform which is exposed during low tide.

Stages of wave cut platform.

Headlands cave, stack, stumps and blowholes.

• Caves occur when waves force their way into cracks in the cliff face. The water contains sand and other materials that grind away at the rock until the cracks become a cave. Hydraulic action is the predominant process.

• If the cave is formed in a headland, it may eventually break through to the other side forming an arch.

• The arch will gradually become bigger until it can no longer support the top of the arch. When the arch collapses, it leaves the headland on one side and a stack (a tall column of rock) on the other.

• The stack will be attacked at the base in the same way that a wave-cut notch is formed. This weakens the structure and it will eventually collapseto form a stump.

• One of the best examples in Britain is Old Harry Rocks, a stack found off a headland in the Isle of Purbeck.
• 

Blow holes are where erosive waves blast their way through the weakness inthe cave vertically.

Blow holes

Erosion types and erosion features on a coast........

Marine erosion and erosion landforms.

Erosion 

Hydraulic action

Abrasion

Attrition

Solution

Sub-aerial weathering-coastal process not linked to sea-

Freeze thaw- Freeze-thaw weathering can also be called frost shattering. Water may get into a crack in a rock and freeze. As the water turns into ice it expands and causes the crack to open a little. When it thaws the ice melts and changes back to water. Repeated freezing and thawing weakens the rock causing rock to break off.

Biological weathering - Plant seeds get into cracks in rocks and begin growing. As they grow, they exert pressure on the rocks, causing them to fracture.

Chemical weathering- Chemical weathering is caused by rain water reacting with the mineral grains in rocks to form new minerals (clays) and soluble salts. These reactions occur particularly when the water is slightly acidic.

Exfoliation

The repeated action of heating and cooling rocks causing them to “shed” off layers.

Mass Movement - is the movement of material down hill due to gravity. 

(Landslides- slumping) - rain sinks through porous rocks, prolonged rainfall increases weight of the cliff.Large saturated rocks fall off.

Rock fall- is free rocks on steep cliff fall of a steep cliff face, due to gravity.It is made worse by weathering,which loosens the rock. At the bottom of the cliff the fallen material forms a scree slope.

Soil creep is the slow movement of material down hill due to gravity it occurs on gentle slops.

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS-

Headlands and bays- found on layers of alternating rock. Where less resistant rock meets resistant rock at the coast at right angles.

Formation of bays and headlands after erosion

Softer rock erodes quicker that hardrock , headlands are formed from rock which is more resistant.

Discordant coastline before